In This Paper I Will Show My Knowledge Of Many Different Topics Of Cel

In this paper I will show my knowledge of many different topics of Cellular Life. I will explain the theory of biogenesis, cell theory, the history of both and how they tie in together. I will also state the scientific method and why it is important to science. Abbi Spallonzani used Scientific method in his biogenesis experiment. Scientific method are some rules or principles used in research and experimentation. Objectivity is the attempt to observe things as they are. Approach is using either inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is using results of observations and experiments with more general hypotheses and theories. Deductive reasoning is using the exact results of previous experiments. Deductive reasoning is used back in the mid 1800's when Louis Pasteur was offered a prize if he could solve the theory if abiogenesis was possible. Abiogenesis is the belief that living things can come from non-living things. Biogenesis is the belief that living things are given birth from other living things. He used previous experiments such as Francis Redi, John Needham, Abbi' Spallonzani, and many others to devise a strategy. He made swan neck flasks with large enough holes in them to let air in but no microorganisms. He boiled mutton broth and put it in the jars and the broth lasted over a year without spoiling. This proved that abiogenesis was wrong. The organisms and flies in previous experiments succeeded in attacking the broth but since the swan neck jars kept them out this proves that nothing can grow from a non living object. The cell theory is a set of rules that are true of all living things. A cell can only be created by another cell. All living things have at least one sell. Cells are the fundamental structure of all organisms.

Free Essays on Leadership

Effective leadership is comprised of several components and qualifications. Although no one is perfect, our society teaches that we have an insatiable need for self-improvement. Maslov’s hierarchy of needs shows that self-actualization is the highest, yet least achieved level. In my personal need for self-improvement, I, along with my colleague Rasheed Vanpatten, have chosen three aspects of my leadership abilities that are in need of improvement. I CALL MY GROUP COMMUNITY OR ORGANIZATION TO ACT OUT OF VALUES THAT TRANSCEND THE DAY TO DAY. I have come to realize that I quite frequently criticize those who do not act out of admirable values, yet I do not actively encourage change. For example, in instances of a lack of neighborhood pride, I personally do not litter on the street, but I never speak out when I see others that I do not know littering. More often than not, it is because of the concern that public opinions are not always given a warm welcome. I realize that true and effective leaders take a stance to make positive changes despite any possible repercussions. Over the next six months, I plan to improve on this flaw by becoming more involved in my community and my department at work. If a true leader leads by example, then I must do so by providing positive images for them to follow. I HAVE A HEALTHY SENSE OF HUMOR. I LAUGH AT MYSELF AND KEEP CYNICISM AND SARCASM IN REIN. I do not take criticism well. Constructive or otherwise. I realize that I often allow other people’s opinions of me affect my own self-confidence. Effective leaders can accept constructive criticism and utilize it to strengthen their leadership attributes. I am also told that I can be condescending and sarcastic. I think that this comes from my lack of patience. Over time I plan to increase my level of patience and consideration for others feelings by attending an anger management course. By doing so I think that I will become more... Free Essays on Leadership Free Essays on Leadership LEADERSHIP Leadership is a complex process by which a person influences other to accomplish a mission, task, or objectives and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. Managers who recognize the importance of emotional intelligence and how it effects decisions will be successful. True leaders are able to break through culture barriers and motivate employees to willingly contribute to the success of the organization. Managers should learn to utilize several different management styles to enable them to handle various situations appropriately and productively. Becoming an effective leader, first starts with thinking like a leader. Managers must initially assess the work environment and the accompanying processes. Leaders gather data to identify issues and analyze the events that they affect. Management can then pinpoint the root causes and implement different process improvement cycles to resolve the issues. The possible solutions are taken into account to come up with the biggest bang for the buck. Performance measurements for follow-up need to be put into place, so feedback can be analyzed to verify that the new processes are successful. Creating a vision that encompasses the ultimate goal of the organization gives direction to the purpose, processes, and employees. Through communicating this vision, the leaders are able to tie in the vision to the work processes, constructing a solid structure to bring focus to the organization’s goals. A clear vision creates an environment of support from lower management and as well as their subordinates. Leadership can be broken down into formal versus informal leaders. Formal leaders have legitimate power of position; that is, they have authority within an organization to influence others to work for the organization objectives. And the Informal leaders usually have no such authority and may or may not exert those influences in support of the organizat... Free Essays on Leadership Effective leadership is comprised of several components and qualifications. Although no one is perfect, our society teaches that we have an insatiable need for self-improvement. Maslov’s hierarchy of needs shows that self-actualization is the highest, yet least achieved level. In my personal need for self-improvement, I, along with my colleague Rasheed Vanpatten, have chosen three aspects of my leadership abilities that are in need of improvement. I CALL MY GROUP COMMUNITY OR ORGANIZATION TO ACT OUT OF VALUES THAT TRANSCEND THE DAY TO DAY. I have come to realize that I quite frequently criticize those who do not act out of admirable values, yet I do not actively encourage change. For example, in instances of a lack of neighborhood pride, I personally do not litter on the street, but I never speak out when I see others that I do not know littering. More often than not, it is because of the concern that public opinions are not always given a warm welcome. I realize that true and effective leaders take a stance to make positive changes despite any possible repercussions. Over the next six months, I plan to improve on this flaw by becoming more involved in my community and my department at work. If a true leader leads by example, then I must do so by providing positive images for them to follow. I HAVE A HEALTHY SENSE OF HUMOR. I LAUGH AT MYSELF AND KEEP CYNICISM AND SARCASM IN REIN. I do not take criticism well. Constructive or otherwise. I realize that I often allow other people’s opinions of me affect my own self-confidence. Effective leaders can accept constructive criticism and utilize it to strengthen their leadership attributes. I am also told that I can be condescending and sarcastic. I think that this comes from my lack of patience. Over time I plan to increase my level of patience and consideration for others feelings by attending an anger management course. By doing so I think that I will become more... Free Essays on Leadership How would you Describe a Leader and Leadership A significant part of effective leadership is the close connection between the leader and the follower, which often determines the success of the leader’s mission. Unfortunately, this leader-follower relationship cannot be created according to some simple formula. Young leaders of today face special challenges as they try to communicate and interact with their followers and potential followers. By exploring global perspectives, human diversity, and ethics, young leaders can take yet another step forward in their development and preparation for twenty-first century leadership. Globalization has many implications for leadership today and in the future. Global perspectives are being spread to the farthest points in the world and to the most isolated people. People of different cultures come to the United States daily to live, travel, or engage in business. Leaders must respond to this challenge of globalization so they can effectively reach out to as many people as possible. Opening themselves to the world’s changes allows leaders to compare and contrast their culture with the arts, language, beliefs, customs, philosophies, and ways of living of other people. By observing and questioning another culture, leaders can understand the origin of an individual’s viewpoints and become more sensitive to the cultural needs of that individual. By continually exposing themselves to other cultures, young leaders can thoroughly develop this global perspective and devote themselves to making connections with the entire world. On a more individual level, openness to human diversity plays a role in adjusting to the changes of the future. People are discovering that even within cultures, individuals come from diverse backgrounds, have different personalities, and prefer different ways of life. Young leaders can build a stronger relationship with their followers as they enhance their own appreciation ... Free Essays on Leadership How do human beings make decisions? What triggers a person to take action at any given point? These are all questions that I will attempt to answer with my theoretical research into Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance, as well as many of the other related theories. We often do not realize the psychological events that take place in our everyday lives. It is important to take notice of theories, such as the balance theory, the congruency theory and the cognitive dissonance theory so that one’s self-persuasion occurs knowingly. As psychologist and theorist gain a better understanding of Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory manipulation could occur more easily than it already does in today’s society. Leon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory is very closely related to many of the consistency theories. The first of the major consistency theories, the balance theory, was proposed by Fritz Heider (1946, 1958) and was later revised by Theodore Newcomb (1953). Heider and Newcomb’s theory was mostly looking at the interaction between two people (interpersonally) and the conflicts that arose between them. When two people have conflicting opinions or tension is felt between another person, it is more likely persuasion will occur. Because if no tension was felt between the two parties, or there were no conflicting opinions there would be no need to persuade each other. If you think about it, persuasion occurs only because there is tension between two facts, ideas or people. Charles Larson writes in his book, Persuasion, Reception and Responsibility, â€Å"another approach to the consistency theory is congruency theory, by Charles Osgood and Percy Tennenbaum (1955)† (p.82). This theory suggests that we want to have balance in our lives and there is a systematic way to numerica lly figure it out. When two attitudes collide, we must strive to strike a balance between the two attitudes. The balance varies depending on ... Free Essays on Leadership A fundamental, but far reaching, role of organisational performance and achievement could take as its starting point the identification and development of leadership. A series of questions and concerns dealing with leadership in groups, organisations and the wider community has led to the growth of numerous different schools of thought in relation to leadership. This essay is an examination of the major schools of thought on leadership theory. But more importantly, it is designed to identify and draw conclusions about the main theme underpinning the various leadership theories and what constitutes leaders and leadership. Leadership is principally concerned with the ability of an individual to influence others. This is typically accomplished through the use of the communication process towards achieving set goals, which contribute to a purpose. (Robbins, Millet, Cacioppe and Waters-Marsh pp 394 1998) However, a more comprehensive definition of leadership is provided by Bass, (in Vecchio pp 17 1997), who states that: "Leadership has been conceived as the focus of group processes, as a matter of personality, as a matter of inducing compliance, as the exercise of influence, as particular behaviors, as a form of persuasion, as a power relation, as an instrument to achieve goals, as an effect of interaction, as differentiated role, as initiation of structure, and as many combinations of these definitions." Nevertheless, many schools of thought have evolved to explain the rationales and assumptions in relation to the concept of leadership, and more importantly, to explain what it is that constitutes a lea der. Indeed, the first theories of leadership attempt to identify the traits and/or inherent attributes of leaders, regardless of the leader’s situation or circumstances. (Nelson and Quick, 1997) Initial studies of leadership considered leaders as individuals endowed with certain personality traits, which constitute their abilit... Free Essays on Leadership Dead Poets Society 1. What changes did you see in the group and in the characteristics of individuals? At the beginning of the film after the ceremony, the students are going through a forming stage where they are sharing polite conversation and are trying to know each other. Even on this stage Neil and Todd are already emerging as playing prominent roles in the movie.  · John Keating is the English professor who is introduced during the opening ceremony and has unconventional ways of teaching. He teaches his students to write poetry to express their feelings and to think for themselves. His passion was language and ideas, he believes in individuality and freedom. His character does not seem to change much during the movie, he is firm to his believes and use all kind of unorthodox methods to show the students not to conform even, to strive to be themselves even when other will disapprove.  · Neil Perry is a very popular student, bright and high achieving, he has a passion for acting but seems afraid of his overbearing father. He starts changing his priorities and getting more courage after Keating start teaching him on the importance of after discovering Keating’s senior annual and learning about the â€Å"Dead Poets Society† and take the initiative to form their own society. His character changes and he dares to disobey his father and take acting. Neil’s death can be seen as an act of a not so strong person or a way to defy his father one more time and show him that at the end he is his own person and do what he wants.  · Todd Anderson feels pressured for being the brother of a gifted person, he acts shy at first and is very insecure of his own skills. He gets transformed after Neil’s death and realizes the importance of being his own person and to think for himself.  · Richard Cameron is serious and loyal to the school and has trouble with the ideas that Keating is teaching. His loyalty is to the school and his characte... Free Essays on Leadership Leadership A significant part of effective leadership is the close connection between the leader and the follower, which often determines the success of the leader’s mission. Unfortunately, this leader-follower relationship cannot be created according to some simple formula. Young leaders of today face special challenges as they try to communicate and interact with their followers and potential followers. By exploring global perspectives, human diversity, and ethics, young leaders can take yet another step forward in their development and preparation for twenty-first century leadership. Globalization has many implications for leadership today and in the future. Global perspectives are being spread to the farthest points in the world and to the most isolated people. People of different cultures come to the United States daily to live, travel, or engage in business. Leaders must respond to this challenge of globalization so they can effectively reach out to as many people as possible. Opening themselves to the world’s changes allows leaders to compare and contrast their culture with the arts, language, beliefs, customs, philosophies, and ways of living of other people. By observing and questioning another culture, leaders can understand the origin of an individual’s viewpoints and become more sensitive to the cultural needs of that individual. By continually exposing themselves to other cultures, young leaders can thoroughly develop this global perspective and devote themselves to making connections with the entire world (Pierce, 2002, p 287). On a more individual level, openness to human diversity plays a role in adjusting to the changes of the future. People are discovering that even within cultures, individuals come from diverse backgrounds, have different personalities, and prefer different ways of life. Young leaders can build a stronger relationship with their followers as they enhance their own appreciation for... Free Essays on Leadership The Japanese Approach U.S. scholars have paid attention to Japanese management systems and contrasts in leadership styles for several decades. This interest has increased along with the exceptional success of Japanese industry and highly visible advantages gained by those companies in quality production. The Japanese system is widely known for its lifetime employment guarantee, a seniority system that rewards loyalty and commitment to organizational harmony. In fact, Japanese management success has rested on three pillars: developing employee loyalty, improving productivity, and pursuing continuous quality improvement. Within this broad outline, several characteristics of Japanese companies emerge. First, employees, once hired, rarely leave for jobs at other companies even though they always have that choice. Second, because of Japan’s insular character, it has retained a homogeneous population that maintains cultural and linguistic integrity; in effect, it is a closed social system of relationships among companies, groups, and political interests. Third, Japan developed a so-called bottom-up decision-making environment that relies on active participation by all employees. The name of this management approach, ringi-sei (or ringi), literally means â€Å"reverential inquiryâ⠂¬  Japan’s approach to leadership is difficult to understand apart from its industrial history, beginning with the Meiji Restoration in 1868. At that time, growth depended heavily on the strength and private fortunes of feudal families. These social institutions amounted to military clans with strong internal networks of political and merchant relationships. As they began to establish Japan’s industrial base, they created family-dominated holding companies that began competing with on another in commerce much as they had in war. Known as zaibatsu, these conglomerates competed by establishing huge trading companies to reach beyond Japan for technology and ... Free Essays on Leadership The Japanese Approach U.S. scholars have paid attention to Japanese management systems and contrasts in leadership styles for several decades. This interest has increased along with the exceptional success of Japanese industry and highly visible advantages gained by those companies in quality production. The Japanese system is widely known for its lifetime employment guarantee, a seniority system that rewards loyalty and commitment to organizational harmony. In fact, Japanese management success has rested on three pillars: developing employee loyalty, improving productivity, and pursuing continuous quality improvement. Within this broad outline, several characteristics of Japanese companies emerge. First, employees, once hired, rarely leave for jobs at other companies even though they always have that choice. Second, because of Japan’s insular character, it has retained a homogeneous population that maintains cultural and linguistic integrity; in effect, it is a closed social system of relationships among companies, groups, and political interests. Third, Japan developed a so-called bottom-up decision-making environment that relies on active participation by all employees. The name of this management approach, ringi-sei (or ringi), literally means â€Å"reverential inquiryâ⠂¬  Japan’s approach to leadership is difficult to understand apart from its industrial history, beginning with the Meiji Restoration in 1868. At that time, growth depended heavily on the strength and private fortunes of feudal families. These social institutions amounted to military clans with strong internal networks of political and merchant relationships. As they began to establish Japan’s industrial base, they created family-dominated holding companies that began competing with on another in commerce much as they had in war. Known as zaibatsu, these conglomerates competed by establishing huge trading companies to reach beyond Japan for technology and ... Free Essays on Leadership Team leaders What is leadership? â€Å"Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals† page 131 Robbins. Leaders can emerge from anywhere, and they do not necessarily have to be assigned the role of a leader to become one. There are two theories that support what makes an effective leader. The first theory that will be discussed is the trait theory. When researching what traits make up a good leader the researchers always seemed to be coming up short. They could not identify certain traits that would separate a leader from a follower, or an effective leader from an ineffective. Researchers were able to come up with six traits normally identified with a leader. The â€Å"six traits on which leaders differ from nonleaders include 1) drive and ambition, 2) the desire to lead and influence others, 3) honesty and integrity, 4) self-confidence, 5) intelligence, and 6) in-depth technical knowledge related to there area of responsibility† page 132 Robbins. The trait theory has many holes in it because it takes more than just traits to make a person a good leader. Traits are definitely a factor that determines how well leader will lead, but how a leader can handle and adapt to situational factors is another big factor. Other researches did not really accept the trait theory, and set them off looking for another theory to answer the question what makes a good leader. The birth of the behavioral theory started after the conclusion of the trait theory. What separate the behavioral theory between the trait theory are the underlying assumptions. The behavioral theory states that if there were certain behaviors that make up a leader, that you would be able to teach those to others. The trait theory implies that either you were born with what it takes or you were not. Ohio State University and Michigan University both did research on the behavioral theory. Ohio State came up with two dimensions called i... Free Essays on Leadership One of the standards of the National Honors Society is that of leadership. Members are expected not only to strive to improve their social environment, but act as a role model, and influence his or her peers in a positive and responsible manner. Students must also balance assertiveness with a compassionate heart. Through my experiences as an editor on the newspaper and captain of the {ENTER SPORTS TEAM HERE], I believe that I demonstrate the NHS ideal of leadership. As editor of {POSITION} for the school newspaper, I have learned to handle my position with authority while gaining the respect of the staff. Every month, the editors of the newspaper are expected to put out a newspaper for the student body that meets the high standards set by past editors. Needless to say, there is little room for error during the process and it is up to us to show the staff initiative and a no-nonsense attitude. Recently, I was put in the position of demonstrating authority with one of my peers when a very important article on Founders’ Park was chosen for the front page. The writer of the piece had to be pushed and prodded and it was my responsibility as an editor to not only help her with the article, but keep her from skipping out of class when she should be working on the story. Through my experiences with the school newspa- per, I have learned that leadership, one of the ideals of NHS, means getting the job done successfully and in a responsible manner. There is also another side of leadership that is often overlooked, yet I came across it while captain of the {SPORTS TEAM] We had the potential and talent to have a wonderful season, but inner conflicts and personal problems got in the way. Finally, I realized that it was time to take the initiative and show my teammates that we were not only a team, but a family and would always be there for each other. I held a meeting one day after school and my ... Free Essays on Leadership Leadership Essay written by: Jake Leadership comes in many different forms but they all are heading toward the same goal; and that is to communicate with people. Some people are silent leaders and lead by example some are more vocal. Nevertheless, whatever type of leader you are, there are certain criteria that must be met. For example being a good role model, being dependable, being trust worthy, these are all things that a true leader must possess. However, all leaders have their strengths and weakness and these are a few areas in which men and woman striving to become leaders often have trouble dealing with. All to often leaders become over defensive and it beings to tear away at the seams of a cohesive unit. A little defensiveness is healthy self-protection...like your immune system. Excessive defensiveness will prevent you from learning from your mistakes after all, why do anything different, if all your mistakes are someone else's fault? Feeling angry because of changes imposed from above? Attack the stupidity of your bosses and you will feel better! This move can be self-defeating if it stops you from understanding their rationale and coming to terms with your own resistance to change. If you have healthy self-esteem, you should be able to admit your mistakes if you have low self-esteem you will either be too hard on yourself for even small mistakes, or you will overreact and defensively never admit them! When you anticipate the failure of one of your projects, do you start telling people why it will fail? You are setting up your defenses in advance so you will not have to create the m after the fact. Advance defensiveness can even facilitate failure. Some people will even sabotage their own projects, when they start to think they will fail, if they can do so in a way that ensures their getting off the hook. Recognizing and avoiding your own excessive defensiveness is not easy if you have developed a pattern of protecting a...

Childhood obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Childhood obesity - Essay Example on, the parents can also benefit from the project since the children will be educated on how to include the whole family while planning the healthy meals. The project will utilize the education strategies that are easily understandable by the target population. The scholars will be taught how to make healthy food choices, based on the available food items in their localities. Concepts of balanced diets and portion sizes will be explained to them in simple ways that are easy to understand. The educators will use models of the Plate Method and Food Pyramid to explain portion sizes and different colors to represent the various food groups. For instance, the educators will use white to represent starches and carbohydrates, green for vegetables and golden brown for proteins. The educators will also include activities that help in the attainment of the project goals. For instance, the students will be taught how to make diet plans that include the correct portions sizes for each food group. They will also be shown the food options that are healthy, for example, whole grains instead of refined carbohydrates, unsaturated fats instead of trans-fats, etc. Exercises will be held after the teaching sessions to test their level of understanding and also to reinforce the knowledge acquired in the oral teaching sessions. Apart from designing meals, the students will be educated on the physiological consequences of taking certain foods. They will be taught on the roles of the different food groups in the body such as provision of energy, digestion and glycemic index. They will also be informed about the storage of excess energy and development of non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and obesity. However, the educators will ensure that they are keen to avoid using technical terms to facilitate easier understanding of the concepts. The project is important to the target population in several ways. First, it provides basic knowledge about proper nutrition

Global Capital Markets Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global Capital Markets - Research Paper Example nturn in many Asian countries financial systems in the world were erected in the past few years when such nations experienced the unmatched growth of other nations as well as the European Central Bank (Hill, 2011). Therefore, ICBC explored this lucrative opportunity to counteract these problems outline in many global economic as well as financial situation as it stressed the financial commitment to international financial industries. The foreign financial commitments established by the ICBC had several advantages. Following the property problems that US had experienced, the ICBC invested considerably in United States economic system. ICBC forecasted equities and liabilities will showcase lower rates. The ICBC declined the costs and assisted enhance economic and financial solutions resulting from their finding source plants. Such synergies as well as industry connections they established culminated into enhanced general banking practices as well as a particular competition of the ICBC banking assets as clearance brokers. Also, the move culminated to ICCB’s overall balance with the assistance of different income streams offered throughout the globe (Hill, 2011). Also, since ICBC had a variety of product as well as avenues for finances the benefited from the constant enhancement in profit thus helping in the recruitment and retaining of their client’s commitment. Furthermore, the ICBC market transition with a variety of financial institution they were dealing with was among the many advantages that was derived from the alterations within the commerce policies as well as the success of consolidated and segmented financial funding sources. Whereas the submissions with appropriate limitations as well as authorization led to new corporate structures of the ICBC Financial organizations accomplishing to gain full commercial advantages. The economic opportunities, as well as financial aid towards several financial institutions, culminated into ICBC being the leading

The Atlas. Microsoft Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Atlas. Microsoft Corporation - Essay Example ..8 Executive Summary: Microsoft Corporation has been an iconic company in the field of Information technology. Microsoft is recognized as a company that has revolutionized the computer market world over. The company has been listed in the Forbes 500 companies in various occasions. The company has been steered towards steady growth by its competent management. The CEO of the company Steven Ballmer is considered as a competent chairperson who has been able to help Microsoft grow further in terms of revenue and expansion. The company has been able to hold its market share in operating system market and expand its market in other ventures like Entertainment and devices. The company has substantial potential to grow even further. A brief history of the company: It was the 1975 issue of Popular Electronics that featured the computer product Altair 8800 of MITS (Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems). It was one of the co-founder of Microsoft Paul Allen who observed that they can dev elop a basic programmer for MITS that can act as an interpreter. Bill gates the other prominent co-founder of Microsoft and Paul Allen developed the basic interpreter for Altair, which was a success. This gave Microsoft a clear direction and on April 04, 1977 Microsoft Inc. was established. The company has ever since a huge growth in the field of software development and internet revolution. The company currently deals with product range Windows operating system, Server and tools, online service division and Entertainment. A brief biography of the current CEO: Steven Ballmer was appointed as CEO of Microsoft in January 2000. He has been with Microsoft since 1980. Ballmer has been heading various divisions in Microsoft ever since. The main divisions that were under Ballmer include Operating Systems Division, Operations and sales and Support. In the year 2011 Ballmer’s total wealth estimate was calculated to be US$ 14.5 billion. He has been ranked 46 on the Forbes list of billi onaires in 2010 issue. Ballmer is acknowledged in the business circuit for his over enthusiastic behavior during business meet. His flamboyant way of conducting himself during conferences sets him apart from other CEOs. Market analysis: The main Industrial market that Microsoft deals with is IT industry. The main products offered by Microsoft are software programs and operating system. Microsoft acknowledges the importance of Research and Development in the IT industry and is always developing new operating systems and softwares to gain competitive advantage. Markets in which the company competes: The company mainly deals with software programming. The company has expanded its domain in many sectors in IT market. Windows operating systems, server and tools, online service operations, business division and Entertainment devices section. The client division of the Microsoft deals with designing the flagship product of Microsoft Windows operating system. The server division produces pr oducts line like Windows Server 2008 R2, Microsoft Visual studio, Microsoft SQL and Microsoft Silverlight. The company also develops software required for business process management, Microsoft BizTalk software. The online services include search engines Bing and MSN. In business division the company deals with Microsoft office package mainly designed to cater the need of office documentation and communication. The latest package is Microsoft 2010. In entertainment and devices section the company de

Hangzhou Wahaha Food Group Management Essay

Hangzhou Wahaha Food Group Management Essay In the global market today, culture has gradually seeped into our daily lives. People can no longer work within their own comfort zone, but the current business markets requires a need to step out of peoples comfort zone to explore the wonders of cross cultural working culture. Like a coin, Culture has its flip side though it has been considered as one of the main factors in shaping and accounting for successful business attempt. However, culture has always been considered a sensitive topic among people, companies and even the nations. In the recent years, many multi-national companies have not yet grasp the culture of the country which they are operating or selling their products in. By using case studies of Danone Vs Wahaha and Renault Vs Nissan in our research, we attempt to compare the vast differences in national culture between France, China and Japan using Geert Hofstedes 6 dimensions of defining and interpreting culture. In 1996, Chinas Hangzhou Wahaha food group, Frances Danone group and Hong Kongs Bai fu qin corporation decided to form a joint venture named Wahaha. In this joint venture, Danone attempted to enter the china market using Wahaha brand that is well-received by the Chinese. However, problems started to arise when Danone become the biggest shareholder in 1998; thus producing resentment from the Chinas Wahaha group as they felt that Danone has misled them from the very beginning. To worsen the problem, Hangzhou Wahaha food group that is managed by Chairman Zong was accused of breaching the contract by establishing non-joint ventures which have infringed the interest of Danone, claiming that the Hangzhou Wahahas establishment of the nonjoint ventures as well as the illegal use of the Wahaha trademark has violated the clause started in the contract. After which Wahahas Chairman Zong was sued into courts by Danone in California and Italy, he further created a series of small companies produc ing the same products as the joint venture. The Wahaha Vs Danone case has significantly depicted a dispute between ownership rights. If reading were done further in depth, conflicts between Danone and Wahaha may be caused by unawareness of the cross cultural differences between France and China. Nissan Vs Renault Nissan, a Japanese company and Renault, a French company have decided to come together to work on a joint project. Both companies were well known for their distinct corporate cultures and brand identity. The joint project was formed as both companies shares a single joint of strategy for profitable growth and community of interest. However, Nissans management style strongly encouraged group performance while the Renault focuses on individual performance. Communication between the top management and employees were not clear and direct, therefore resulting in misunderstanding within the company. The conflict arises between the 2 partners was due to Nissans employees assumed that Renault was another company similar to them by encouraging group performance. However, Renaults management style belongs to a much more individualistic approach, making the Nissans employees felt uncomfortable of having the feeling of losing their family atmosphere. Communication between the Nissan employees and Renault employees broke down; Nissan did not understood what were Renaults main objectives and their company goals in their partnership with Nissan. Some of the Nissans managers felt frustrated and opposed to the entry of Renault representative on Nissans board. The managers were old employees, and they felt that employees should be promoted according to their seniority instead of individual performance. The breakdown of communication is also caused by the differences in their language. With such a significant difference in their management style, there is a need in cross cultural awareness f or the business joint venture to be a successful one. Geert Hofstedes 6 dimensions According to Geert Hofstedes cultural research studies, he has interpreted that culture can be classified into 6 different dimensions; Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism Vs Collectivism, Masculinity Vs Femininity, Long term orientation Vs Short term orientation. The table below shows the different scores allocated to the different dimensions for France, China and Japan France China Japan Power Distance 68 80 54 Uncertainty Avoidance 86 30 92 Individualism Vs Collectivism 71 20 46 Masculinity Vs Femininity 43 66 95 Long Term Orientation Vs Short term Orientation 39 118 80 ** INSERT THE VALUES MEANING Power Distance Power distance deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal it expresses the attitude of the culture towards inequalities among us. Power distance can be defined as to the extent to which the less powerful expects and accepts that power is distributed unequally. (Geert Hofstede,2001 ) In comparison of France, China and Japan, China belongs to a society where the people believes that inequalities is acceptable where there is a presence of a powerful employer-subordinate relationship which the subordinate will abide by all rules and regulations set by the employer. France on the other hand may be prone towards a more hierarchical organization system where the attitude towards managers are more formal. Japan belongs to a more hierarchical society where the Japanese should be conscious of their hierarchical position in any situations. All decisions made must be confirmed by each level of the management and finally by the top management. Individualism Vs Collectivism In the dimension of Individualism Vs Collectivism, Individualism can be identified as the high degree of independence a society maintains among its members. It relates to peoples self image in terms of I while Collectivism can be identified to be the opposite. In a individualist society, people tends to only look after themselves and their direct family only while a collectivist society consists of people belonging to a group that takes care of them in exchange for their loyalty.(Geert Hofstede,2001) Comparing the 3 countries, there is a significant difference; China belongs to a highly collectivist country where people act at an interest of a group. In this norm, personal relationships prevail over the task and company. However in France, there is a certain degree of independence a society maintains among its members. The French prefers individual and private opinions and work relationships between the employer and employees are contract based where everyones focus is on the task itself. Communication within a individualist company would be direct where everyone can give their opinions freely if they do not agree. Referring back to the Nissan Vs Renault case, it has clearly shown that Renault (France) encouraged a more individualist approach by promoting individual initiatives and hoped that the employees are promoted through individual performance. Direct contacts between the top management and employees were encouraged in their individualistic approach. Japan similar to china belongs to a highly collectivist society, this can be shown through putting their harmony of group above the expression of individual opinions and the Japanese have a strong sense of shame for losing face. In the Nissan Vs Renault case, Nissans employees feel that it is important to have a family atmosphere in their working environment. The managers of Nissan felt frustrated and opposed to the entry of Nissan as they felt that promotions should be done according to seniority, not individual performance. This clearly shows that Nissan (Japan) belongs to a collectivist society. Masculinity Vs Feminity Masculinity Vs Feminity is another dimension where we can infer that a masculine society will be driven by competition, achievement and success. It is a value system that starts in the school and continues throughout organizational behavior. On the contrary, a feminine society will be driven by caring for others and quality of life. It is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. (Geert Hofstede, 2001) In China, Leisure time to the Chinese is not as important compared to the status and better salaries. Such examples can be found in students as they care very much about their exam scores and ranking as the main criteria to achieve success or not. France belongs to a relatively feminine society. It may be due to their famous welfare system, securità © sociale where the French are only required to work 35 working hours per week and entitled to 5 weeks of holidays per year. France cares greatly for their quality of life and focuses more on work in order to live the reverse. Competition in the working environment is usually not encouraged and flashy signs of success should not be shown in the public. In the Renault Vs Nissan case, Nissan is shown to be treated males and females equally. Some of the female employees were offered several managerial positions in the company. Japan, a total opposite from France has a highly masculine culture. It is usually shown through competitive situations between groups, not individuals. Their famous workaholism is also another expression of their highly masculine culture. In Japan, women find it difficult to climb the corporate ladder due to their masculine norm of hard and long working hours. Contrasting Renault in the case study, Nissan belongs to a masculine company which managerial positions are only offered to the male employees, not the female workers. Uncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty avoidance has to do with how the society deals with the fact that their future will not be known. The unknown elements will bring about ambiguity and different cultures will react to the ambiguity in different ways. The uncertainty avoidance can be defined as the extent to which the members of a culture feels threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these. (Geert Hofstede, 2001) The high degree of ambiguity can be seen from the Chinese as their language is often full of ambiguity that can be seen as confusing for the westerners. It is shown that the Chinese are comfortable with ambiguity and seen to be adaptable and entrepreneurial. 70%-80% of Chinese businesses tend to be small to medium sized and family owned. France on the other hand tends to have their teachings and training done in a deductive approach. In the management level, rules and securities are ensured to create a stress free working environment and a certain level of expertise are welcomed. A change of policies can also be seen as a stressful event. Japanese is one of the few countries that have the highest uncertainty avoidance score. It may be due to the fact that Japan is constantly threatened with natural disasters such as earthquake, volcanoes eruptions that most Japanese are always prepared in any kind of situations. In the business environment, a lot of time and effort are put into feasibility studies and all the risk must be worked out before the project can proceed. Long term Vs Short term orientation In the Long term Vs Short term orientation, a long term orientation can be seen closely related to teachings of Confucius and can be separately interpreted as dealing with societys search for virtue. Long term orientation can be defined as the extent to which a society shows a pragmatic future orientated perspective while Short term orientation shows a conventional historical short term point of view. (Geert Hofstede, 2001) China belongs to a long term orientated society whereby persistence and perseverance is seen to be normal. The Chinese are thrifty and tends to invest in long term projects such as real estate. They also recognized that the government is by men rather than being influenced by external factors such as god or the laws. France on a contrary is a short term oriented society; there is a great respect towards traditions, cultures and their language. In business related issues, the French tends to focus on short term results and therefore, companies are usually driven by quarterly results. They do not focus on saving and the management style is based on self-reliance, personal achievement, hard work and managers are judged based on short term results. In Japan, people lives their lives guided by virtues and good examples in life. There is a hint of long term orientation in the constantly high rate of investment in RD, even through difficult times. This is all done for the sake of a steady growth for market share instead of a quarterly profit, thus increasing the durability of the company, serving the stakeholders and the society for many generations to come. From the graph above, it has shown that the cultural differences between France and China is distinctly difference in terms of their power distance, Individualism, Masculinity, Uncertainty avoidance and Long term orientation. With that significant difference, there is furthermore a need to focus on the awareness of cross cultural differences between the 2 country in order for the joint venture between Wahaha and Danone to be a successful one. By relating back to the case study, Danone, the French company may not understand the ambiguity in how the Chinese operates in Wahaha and may misinterpreted their good intentions. Likewise, for Hangzhou Wahaha, it is founded by the Chairman Zong who started the company from a small company which may be very much more family-owned. Chairman Zong may not have a vast understanding of how international joint ventures works and can end up leading to bigger misunderstanding and conflicts which results in the failure of the joint venture or business at tempts. Given an example from the case study; Zhang Cheryl(2001) stated that the interpretation of losing control is different between the western society and china. In the western society, the meaning of losing control may not be treated at a personal level. However, losing control in china is equally be meant as losing face, and losing face in this case study would refers to losing the power to make decisions which puts Chairman Zong of Wahaha in a disrespectful situation among his employees. Wahaha therefore insist to runs normally in their daily operations in order to keep their face. To worsen the situation, Wahaha perceived it was losing face when Danone established other IJVs with their competitors resulting in Wahaha being less motivated to settle their conflicts and disputes between each other. From the case study, we have seen how important cross cultural awareness is important in shaping and cultivating a good business attempt. In comparison of France and Japan, there is still a significant difference in the 6 dimension index from Hofstedes theory. In the Nissan Vs Renault case study, the difference in management style, breakdown of communication, different cultural values and language barrier are factors which may have caused a conflict between the 2 companies. One of the major problems may be the different management style; where Nissan is prone to work in a family like atmosphere. However, Renault focus on individual performance where individual employees only cares about their own results. Nissan can also be seen as a more masculine society which managerial positions are only offered to male employees while Renault treats all employees as it can be shown that several managerial positions were taken up by female employees. In such a different cultural environment, it is important that both companies should have cross cultural awareness for the business venture to be successful. Importance of national culture As discussed above, The analysis and evaluation between Danone Vs Wahaha and Renault Vs Nissan (France, Japan China), we have identified and come to an understanding that both companies have failed to understand and account for each partys culture thus leading to main issues such as communication breakdown, management problems and conflicts. Previously where this essay has analyzed and critically evaluated the two different case studies of Danone Vs Wahaha and Renault Vs Nissan (countries France, China and Japan), what we have identified is that that both companies have failed to understand and account for each others culture because of the failure to do so, main issues like communication breakdown, management problems and conflict happens. It is therefore crucial for large multinational companies to be exposed to the different international cultural differences as in their daily operations they are exposed to multiple national cultures. This suggests that managing across borders introduces substantial complexity because it forces multinationals to attune their practices and approaches to each and every cultural context they operate in. In the previous section, Geert Hofstedes 6 dimensions index were discussed to evaluate the two case studies. It has shown that each country would have its own significant difference from the 6 dimension index from Hofstedes theory. Failure to appreciate and account for them can lead to issues like strain relationships between employees and employers or between stakeholders, communication breakdown between management team and drag down business performance. Each country has a unique cultural perspective and approach to certain situations and hence it is important for companies to strive to understand and support relevant programs or strategies in each region. However, based on Geert Hofstedes research on national culture, he has demonstrated that organizations can no longer ignore the impact of national cultures on organizations cultures particularly for multinational companies. It is also clear that in the current times, the implementation of positive organizational cultures and effectively merging of national cultures into organizational culture is critical for positive business performance and outcomes. Newman Nollen (1996) state that there is no one best way to manage a business. Differences in national cultures call for differences in management practices. One of their conclusions also states the importance of the congruence between management practices and the national culture should be in harmony in order to produce better performance outcomes, therefore pinpointing in another way the importance of cultural differences. Therefore, the management team of a company should pay extra attention to national cultural differences as it may influence the effectiveness of the strategies and decisions that the company makes. In addition, it may also affect the managers management style too. Therefore as a start, multinational companies should understand and be aware of the different types of national culture as well as adopting a fitting organizational culture themselves to account for international culture differences towards their employee, employers and well as their customers. Organizational Culture Greenberg and Baron (1997) define organizational culture as a cognitive framework consisting of attitudes, values, behavioral norms, and expectations. These values stated have a strong influence on employees behaviors, thinking, and behavioral patterns. For example, if a company is in the international business industry, having a culture that encourages diversity and adaptability will support its performance. In turn, the employees behaviors and thinking may be affected overtime and will react positively to diversity within their company and welcome it. In current times, companies operate in an increasingly complex and global environment where they are conducting more and more business in foreign countries. Apart from serving a global diverse marketplace, multinational companies would also consists of a diverse staff. As such, companies are faced with the challenge of managing a culturally diverse workforce. Martin (1992) and Goffee and Jones (1996) also demonstrates that strong cultures exist where employee values are unified and aligned to the values of the organization hence creating a sense of belonging and loyalty toward the company. Organizational culture is also an effective control mechanism for managing employee behavior. Therefore, this is a need for an organizational culture that fits to the needs of the company and its employees. Influence of Organizational culture Organizational culture shapes the way people do business, the way they do things varies across different countries. As such, same organizations of different national origins may have to do things differently and bearing in mind the culture of the nation or origin in which they operate. This certainly impacts on policies, communication strategies, organizational structure, human resources, recruitment and retention. Organizations particularly multinational companies can therefore no longer afford not to consider the national origins of countries where there operate and the degree to which the national cultures of these origins affect organizational culture when doing business. Organizational culture precedes employee behavior. Managers have the ability to influence and manage organizational culture. When this is done effectively, employees will too express those values positively through their behavior. To elaborate, if a typical organization has an extensive range of people who have international differences, the company would then need to foster a cultural diversity culture among its employees to create a mutual respect for the different cultures. This also in turns enables their employees to reach their full potential. The company should also portray the cultural diversity aspect of the organization in their mission statement. Edgard Scheins Three Levels of Culture Apart from Geert Hofstedes 6 dimensions of defining culture, there is another famous culture theorist, Edgard Schein that devotes all his effort into comparing and identifying the organizational cultural differences. According to Edward Schein(1992), Organizational learning, development, and planned change cannot be understood without considering culture as the primary source to change. Schein has categorized culture into 3 different levels: Artifacts, Espoused Values, Basic assumptions and values. Three Levels of Culture (Schein, 2004, Organizational culture and leadership, 27) Schein defined that culture is first seen through artifacts such as visual organizational structures or tangible items. Underlying artifacts is the values such as strategies, goals and philosophies. The core of the 3 levels would be assumptions such as taken for granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts and feelings through experience. Applying Scheins 3 levels of defining culture into Wahaha Vs Danone and Nissan Vs Renault case studies, a person would first judge a person through tangible and visible elements. In Nissan Vs Renault case study, the Japanese employees from Nissan first perceived Renault as a company from France with elements such as language, or even particular dress codes from the French employees. Underlying that judgment through visible elements would be espoused values such as how the organization represents itself through official statements or philosophies present in the company. In Renault, the common culture within the employees is that the top management focus on individual performance and everyone is equal to vie for the managerial position. Vice versa for Nissan, the common culture within the company would be Family first mantra which promotes the family-like atmosphere in the company. With the diverse differences between the 2 companies, conflicts would arise when the 2 companies espoused values are not aligned with one another. Lastly, the core element would be the shared basic assumptions which are usually deeply integrated into the culture and usually unconscious, thus people find it difficult to identify from within. Edgar Schein argues that the different cultures which people belongs can affect the different assumptions we would make about a particular situations based on our own values. According to the Wahaha Vs Danone case study, the assumption of losing face to Danone was nothing close to personal; however Wahaha views losing face as a disrespect among the employees. Such situations would cause a dispute between both companies who has diverse differences in their national culture. From the previous case studies from Wahaha Vs Danone and Nissan Vs Renault where they are example of companies that have failed to grasp the culture of the country and to adopt a fitting organizational culture. Now, using a case study on Google in our research, we will attempt to evaluate how Google makes use of national culture and their organizational culture to account and shape for international differences using Edgard Scheins Three Levels of Culture theory. Google Google is a worldwide company that has strong practices in diversity. Google culture revolves around their mission: to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful. (Corporate Information, 2011) Google consists of a diverse staff, and supports a variety of cultural norms. Through this cultural norm, Google encourages and supports the diversity of its contacts and employees. Diversity is an essential component of the culture and business at Google. Google has employees that speak many languages to cater to the diversity of their consumer base. In fact more than half of the results Google provides to its customers are outside of the United States (Corporate Information, 2010). Diversity is distinguishable in all parts of Google such as their employees, offices, products, and customers. Therefore, when employing people from different cultural backgrounds, companies may benefit from generating a unified organizational culture. Googles Culture As Google consist of a diverse staff group, it shows the importance of having a strategically appropriate culture, a culture which will fits the needs of the organization, its employees and the marketplace. At Google, we dont just accept difference we thrive on it, we celebrate it, and we support it for the bene ¬Ã‚ t of our employees, our products, and our community. (Google Annual Report, 2010) Google has embraced diversity and integrated it into their culture and into their core culture statement. The manifestations of Googles culture are analyzed by evaluating the artifacts at Google (Gagliardi, 1992). Through looking at the various aspects of Google, it is shown that Google has an integrated and informal culture (Martin, 1992), which comprises of four key elements. Mission Innovation Fun Reward Using Edgard Scheins Three Levels of Culture, it is first defined and seen through the artifacts such as visual organizational structures or tangible items. Google supports diversity of norms in each office by utilizing local expressions of each location, from a mural in Buenos Aires to ski gondolas in Zurich, showcasing each offices region and personality (Corporate Information, 2010). One of the key aspects of Googles culture is that they promote communication between the employees. Googles office and cafes are designed to encourage interactions between employees within and across teams, and to spark conversation about work as well as play. Social interactions stimulate knowledge and learning breakthroughs. Without communication, there is no way to express thoughts, ideas, manage differences and feelings. Communication plays an important role in keeping and maintaining values and relationships necessary to keep the system of the organisation united. The next level of culture would be the exposed values which are the strategies, goals and philosophies. Daft (2003) stated that managing a global environment requires managers to have the ability to manage change through innovation and creativity. Therefore, the employees in Google are motivated to contribute their suggestions and ideas. Most of Googles work are project based hence employees are required to team up and pursue the project. The team may consist of a diverse group of members. Through the concept of a group project, members would then need to learn to accept one another and work together. This enhances the communication between Googles employees and hence they share a unified common goal and vision. As Google consists of a diversity of staff and most of the work is project based, conflicts are bound to happen between the employees. Therefore, conflict management between employees and respect for cultures must be structured and organized for the many cultures and diversities. This notion requires much research, training, and awareness to be spread throughout the company. One strategy that Google implement is to create awareness of international differences is by organizing national cultural events such as The 6th Sense: Diversity Week in India and Diwali and Google Mela to develop cultural intelligence to the employees and international cultural competence. Cultural intelligence integrates the three interrelated elements of knowledge, mindfulness, and behavioral skills. International cultural competence goes in depth to a complex skill that make use of cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning to effectively engage in successful cross-cultural relationships. The purpose of these cultural events is that the employees would generate a culture-specific understanding of the other and positively regard of the other. Through these events, it will groom and educate the employees on cultural awareness. During such events, Googles employees are able to interact and appreciate each others culture; consequently, an accommodating culture and organizational behavior is then established within the organization. The next level of culture would be the assumptions such as taken for granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts and feelings through experience. Googles employees are passionate and self-motivated, and the company empowers them to a certain degree to make responsible decisions. Therefore, employees could get the opportunity to innovate and unleash their imagination and ideas. After analyzing all of Google culture characteristic, using Deal and Kennedy model of organizational culture (Deal and Kennedy, 1982), Google most likely falls into the work hard/play hard culture. Characteristics of the culture include high levels of activity and where employee has to take few risks. We have identified that most of the work that Googles employees faced are project based and employee have the freedom of choice to complete their project in any way they would like. Another characteristic of this culture includes ensuring that quality accompanies the high levels of activity. Google integrates the concept of the 70-20-10 Rule where they are encouraged using 70 percent of their working time on central business functions, 20 percent on related business functions, and 10 percent on areas entirely of their own choice (Google Corporate Information, 2012). In addition, due to stiff competition the employees are also passionate and motivated to develop one by continuously contr ibuting ideas, suggestions to potential profit gaining activities though their meetings. Through the concept of organizational culture on how they are establish and

Leadership in Milton’s Paradise Lost, Cavendish’s Blazing World, and Ot

Leadership in Milton’s Paradise Lost, Cavendish’s Blazing World, and Shakespeare’s Othello and Hamlet Critical thinkers are the strongest people in the world—not only are they able to form their own opinions, but these individuals are also versatile enough to listen to their counsel for the best advice. They have learned when to be flexible and when to be stubborn—and they’ve realized who’s a snake in the grass and who deserves paramount respect. To live happily ever after, or even just to survive, a person must learn from the best. Leaders are no exception to the rule. Whether they come from a royal family, are spontaneously appointed, or are the only ones around and therefore lead by default, leaders must detect and discern the truth, using all of the empirical experience and intuitive senses that mankind has had bestowed upon them. In addition to all their duties, a good leader must be a critical thinker. Simply put, a leader’s ability to listen to another opinion speaks volumes about their character. In John Milton’s Paradise Lost, Margaret Cavendish’s Blazing World, and William Shakespeare’s tragedies of Othello and Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, there are a tremendous variety of leaders and counselors who all have different circumstances, yet all may be analyzed through twos common themes: The measures of innocence verses experience and passion verses reason in leadership positions. Some of the leaders that will be in focus don’t always play the part. Some aren’t always so innocent. But if we look at how characters with leadership roles treat their counsel—whether those advisors are family, friends, lovers or superiors—we will not simply learn more about the literature we study, but we may apply what we learn to o... ...25. Knight, G. Wilson. â€Å"The Embassy of Death: An Essay on Hamlet.† The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations of Shakespearean Tragedy. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1930. Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Portable Machiavelli. Eds. Peter Bondanella and Mark Musa. New York: The Viking Press, 1979. McAlpine, Alistair. The New Machiavelli: The Art of Politics in Business. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1998. Milton, John. Paradise Lost. 1674. Ed. Scott Elledge. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. The Tragedies of Shakespeare. Players Illustrated Edition. Chicago: Spencer Press, Inc., 1955. Wood, Tanya Caroline. â€Å"The Fall and Rise of Absolutism: Margaret Cavendish’s Manipulation of Masque Conventions in ‘The Claspe: Fantasmes Masque’ and The Blazing World.† In-between: Essays and Studies in Literary Criticism. 2000.

Womens rights

History of women's rights See also: Legal rights of women in history and Timeline of women's rights (other than voting) China The status of women In China was low, largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding Involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long.The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women. Due to the social custom that men and omen should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors of Western Medicine. This resulted in a tremendous need for female doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton (1854-1927)[3] was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA) to found the first medical college for women in China.Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women this College was located In Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Mr. Edward A. K. Hackett (1851-1916) of Indiana, USA. The College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social Greece The status of women in ancient Greece varied form city state to city state. Records exist of women in ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the tlme. [8] In ancient Athens. omen had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the oikos headed by the male kyrios. Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or other male relative. once married the husband became a woman's kyrlos. As omen were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf. [9] Athenian women had limited right to property and therefore were not considered full citizens, as citizenship and the entitlement to civil and political rights was defined in relation to property and the means to life. 10] However, women could acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, though her kyrios had the right to dispose of a woman's property[11] Athenian women could enter into a contract worth less than the value of a â€Å"medimnos of barley' (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading. 9] Slaves, like women, were not eligible for full citizenship In ancient Athens, though In rare circumstances they could become citizens if freed. The only permanent barrier to citizenship, and hence full political and civil rights, in ancient Athens was gender.No women ever acquired citizenship In ancient Athens, and therefore women were excluded In principle and practice from ancient Athenian democracy. [12] By contrast, Spartan women enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. Although Spartan women were formally excluded from military and political life they njoyed considerable status as mothers of Spartan warriors. As men engaged in military activity, women took responsibility for running estates. Following protracted and 40% of all Spartan land and By the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women.The unique thing about Patria Potestas was that it ad no age limits, according to Gaius a man could be consul, have a wife and children of his own and future prominence but as long as his father was alive was still under his potestas (power) and so could own nothing. Patria Potestas only ended with either the death of the father, or emancipation by him. Early in the Republic Manus Marriage ended the potestas for women, but during the middle and later Republic that form of marriage became rare, eventually disappearing completely.Marriage Under Law Rome had only two forms of marriage, and both had exactly the opposite view of legal effects. Manus Marriage was the earlier form of marriage and placed the woman under her husband's manus legally standing in the position of a daughter. Under this type of marriage women could own nothing, and had little if any legal protections. On the other hand a woman assumed the position of her husband's daughter in Manus Marriage making her agnatically instead of cognatically related to Manus, and was the opposite of Manus.Women married Sine Manu experienced no legal changes, so if her father was alive at time of marriage she continued to be his dependent and before the reign of Marcus Aurelius he could even force an end to he marriage. The lack of any legal change of status for the women meant that (provided their father had either died or emancipated them) they could own property, conduct most forms of business, and divorce her husband (without any reason needed). Legally speaking the only lack of independence a woman in Rome experienced in a marriage without Manus was from her fathe r.The only legal issue related to marriage was dowry. A dowry was not required by law, but was usually provided by a father or if a father was nonexistent it would be whatever the bride wished to come out of her own estate. It was administered by the husband, but in the vent of a divorce he was required to provide either the dowry or the equivalent of it back to his wife. In the case of adultery, husbands got to keep portions of the dowry. Politics Legally speaking women were banned from politics.As with freedmen and slaves of the Imperial Family women of the imperial family gained some benefits from the fall of the Republic, but because the nature of the Principate was to hide dictatorship such power had to be subtle and kept out of the public eye when possible. The ban on women and politics was they could not vote or run for office (sine suffragio) enlist n the army, or represent somebody else in court, women speaking their minds was not considered politics and so some women like Hortensia managed to make appearances in politics without violating the law.Inheritance Rights Everyone under the potestas of another had equal rights of inheritance under Roman Law, and wills that did otherwise ran risks of being challenged and invalidated as negligent. Stoic Influence Stoic philosophies had a strong effect on the development of law in ancient Rome. The Roman stoic thinkers Seneca and Musonius Rufus developed theories of Just elationships (not to be confused with equality in society, or even equality) arguing that nature gives men and women equal capacity for virtue and equal obligations to act virtuously (a vague concept).Therefore they argued that men and women have an equal need for philosophical education. [20] Stoic theories entered Roman law first through the Roman lawyer and senator Marcus Tullius Cicero and the influence of stoicism and philosophy increased while the status of women improved under the Empire. [21] Religious scriptures Bible See Women in the Bible â€Å"Adam named his wife Eve, because she would become the mother of all the living. (Genesis 3:20) â€Å"Now Deborah, a prophet, the wife of Lappidoth, was leading Israel at that time. † Oudges 4:4) God chose a woman, Deborah, to lead Israel.Qur'an The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. feminism, and Sex segregation and Islam The Qur'an, revealed to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, provide guidance to the Islamic community and modified existing customs in Arab society. From 610 and 661, known as the early reforms under Islam, the Qur'an introduced fundamental reforms to customary law and ntroduced rights for women in marriage, divorce and inheritance.By providing that the wife, not her family, would receive a dowry from the husband, which she could administer as her personal property, the Qur'an made women a legal party to the marriage contra ct. [citation needed] While in customary law inheritance was limited to male descendents, the Qur'an introduced rules on inheritance with certain fixed shares being distributed to designated heirs, first to the nearest female relatives and then the nearest male relatives. 22] According to Annemarie Schimmel â€Å"compared to he pre-lslamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work. â€Å"[23] The general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. [24] Women were generally given greater rights than women in pre-lslamic Arabia[25][26] and medieval Europe. [27] Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures until centuries later. 28] According to Professor William Montgomery Watt, when seen in uch historical context, Muhammad â€Å"can be seen as a fgure who testified on behalf of women's rights. â€Å"[29] The Middle Ages According to English Common Law, which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced.French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. [30] In the 16th entury, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. [31] Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women, until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a pat riarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. 32] This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples. [33] 18th and 19th century Europe The Debutante (1807) by Henry Fuseli; The woman, victim of male social conventions, is tied to the wall, made to sew and guarded by governesses. The picture reflects Mary Wollstonecraft's views in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published in 1792. [34] Starting in the late 18th century, and throughout the 19th century, rights, as a concept and claim, gained increasing political, social and philosophical importance in Europe.Movements emerged which demanded freedom of religion, the abolition of slavery, rights for women, rights for those who did not own property and universal to political debates in both France and Britain. At the time some of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment, who defended democratic principles of equality and challenged notions that a privileged few should rule over the vast majority of the population, believed that these principles should be applied only to their own gender and their own race.The philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau for example thought that it was the order of nature for woman to obey men. He wrote â€Å"Women do wrong to complain of the inequality of man-made laws† and claimed that â€Å"when she tries to usurp our rights, she is our First page of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen In 1791 he French playwright and political activist Olympe de Gouges published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,[37] modelled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789.The Declaration is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that: â€Å"This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have lost in society'. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen ollows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as â€Å"almost a parody†¦ f the original document†. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that â€Å"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. † The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: â€Å"Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility'.De Gouges expands the sixth article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which declared the rights of citizens to take part in the formation of law, to: Australian women's rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon: A hypothetical female member foists her baby's care on the House Speaker â€Å"All citizens including women are equally admissible to all public dignities, offices and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talents†. De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights. 8] Mary Wollstonecraft, a British writer and philosopher, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, arguing that it was the education and upbringing of women that created limited expectations. Women’s Rights Over the centuries, women have faced numerous difficulties in a male supremacist infested society who places gender as the main determining element of human capacity. Despite the rise of liberal, secularist ideologies that express support for women’s rights in the 08th and 19th centuries, the problem remains chronic as there remain social prejudices and blind convictions on the weaknesses and shortcomings of women as members of society. . During the 50s, the media projected women as undignified citizens who do not have the right to exercise free will. Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin recall Seventeen Magazine to have advised their readers about the role of women in a relationship. That the woman’s role was to function as partners and not rivals, enemies, and playthings, and that the relationship between women and men should create a heaven, a home that should serve as a place of sanctuary and peace (Isserman & Kazin, 2000, 13). The 1960s proved, on the other hand, to be one of the biggest turning points of women’s rights in the United States and across the world. Apart from the emergence of the second wave of feminists, the Vietnam War provided opportunities for women to show their capabilities as members of the working class. The entrance of women to the realm of the paid labor force were led by women who at the time were over the 40-year old mark Despite such remarkable turn of events, women remained to be deemed as underrated second class citizens. Primarily, tradition norms hold that women should not be granted education and right to labor as their capabilities are not equal to those of their male counterparts. As a result, society failed to acknowledge the statistical proliferation of women in the labor sector because of traditional belief and practice. In doing so, society also failed to look at the fact that the entrance of women in the labor force meant that women as unrecognized members of society have finally broken the domestic ideal that women are supposed to show their supremacy as homemakers and housewives. For the African American woman however, the deprivation of rights were enveloped in the concepts of gender and ethnicity. While African-American women enjoyed the rights to having paid labor similar to those of their male counterparts, they were always compared to white women (Isserman & Kazin, 2000, 26). And considering the rampant racial discrimination during the 20th century, the comparisons between African-American women and Caucasian women implied negativity. Likewise, the right to purity for African American women was among the most alarming concerns as the accepted norm regarding women who take pleasure for sensual activities were only ascribed to African American women. Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin (2000, 27) write that white American Writer Willie Morris was shocked by the fact that a woman of his own skin tone does actually enjoy sexual intercourse. Morris added more insult to injury as he denoted his personal thought that â€Å"only Negro women engaged in the act of love with white males just for fun (Isserman & Kazin, 2000, 27). † Women’s rights over the years have been hindered by male supremacists who only believed in the capabilities of their own ego. However, it has also been apparent that apart from gender, skin tone and other physical features are also factors that hinder women from proliferating and being part of a prejudice-free society. But putting all the obstacles that gender issues bring forth, such obstacles should not be the cause of disheartening but a beacon of hope that women would one day face a world free of blind prejudice and mindless conformity. Women’s Rights Women are increasingly under attack in Afghanistan as far as women’s rights are concerned. The Taliban overthrew the afghan government in 1996, and ruled from 1996-2001, and during that time; strict restrictions had been executed on women. Women and girls were not allowed to work or receive education. There was an exception to the rule if a woman was widowed, and had no other source of income, and then she could work. Women could not go outside, unless they were covered in a head to toe â€Å"burqua,† which is their traditional attire, and a male relative had to accompany them. The burqua only has a small mesh opening over the eyes allowing limited vision, and many of the women had been injured due to poor visibility. If a woman showed a bit of her ankle or had noisy shoes, she would be beaten. In addition, women had no voice, so they are were not allowed to speak in public. From puberty until death, women could only speak to men who were relatives. Once â€Å"The War on Terrorism† began, it gave the Afghan and Iraqi women hope to reform their nation and improve the social situation. The Taliban were chased from the country by U. S. military forces in 2001, and there have been some improvements in women’s rights concerning education and employment although many still suffer the hardships they did before the war. Most improvements have happened in major cites of Afghanistan such as Kabul, leaving rural areas with very much change at all. The police still enforce the wearing of the â€Å"burqua† by the women, but in Kabul, many professional women no longer wear the burqua, but many still do. According to a July 2003 Human Rights Watch report, the Southeast Afghanistan army and police practice of kidnapping, robbing and raping is so prevalent that women and girls are staying home as a means of protection. The fear of assault and political intimidation prevents the women and girls from gaining an education, employment and political influence. † (National Organization for Women, 2008) There is no abiding law and order in Afghanistan by the police o r local authorities. The NATO forces do not have enough manpower to offer protection. However, armed fathers, husbands and brothers do all they can to protect the women. Afghanistan is also known for child brides and marrying off girls as young as eleven to men in their thirties and even older. â€Å"True, women hold 27 percent of the seats in the National Assembly and one-sixth of the seats in the Upper House. But most Afghan women remain illiterate, impoverished and vulnerable to political and criminal violence. Only 15 percent of Afghan woman can read. The United Nations has described Afghan women as being â€Å"among the worst-off in the world. On average, women in Afghanistan die at least 20 years younger than women elsewhere. †(Women in Afghanistan, 2006) In Herat, which is Afghanistan’s second largest city, the government has given women and girls limited educational and employment opportunities. Women groups have been censored, and derailed from the governments’ administration. It is bad enough that the government is threatening womenâ₠¬â„¢s rights, but society has imposed other means by handing out pamphlets in communities encouraging parents not to send their daughters to school, and many of the girls schools have been firebombed and burned. Some girls have been poisoned to death for going to school. Parents that often deny education for their daughters, force their young girls into marriage. Girls are forced into marriage as young as eight years old. Other restrictions that Afghan women face as a violation of women’s rights is a ban on outside employment, strict dress code for women, very limited medical care, threats of violence if seen without a husband, father or male relative and rejection of humanitarian aid. Women are denied any share of humanitarian aid delivered to their country under the assumption that the men will take care of the women. Before the Taliban takeover in 1996, the Afghanistan women were scientist, members of parliament, cabinet members, and university professors. They led corporations, non-profit organizations and local communities. Many of these women are more than qualified to lead Afghanistan back to democracy. In November 2001, shockingly, Afghan women marched for their rights in Kabul. For the first time in more than six years, Afghan women rallied for their rights. Hillary Clinton established a campaign for women in Afghanistan and in 1999; she spoke out on their behalf about the abuse and the wearing of the burqua of the women in Afghanistan. Over the years, some schools have reopened in Afghanistan allowing boys and girls to attend. Several women have also been appointed or elected to important political roles. In the past five years, in the southern city of Kandahar at least five thousand women have graduated from special literacy courses, where they learned how to read and write and were taught skills such as dressmaking or computer knowledge. There is a woman minister of public health, a woman minister of women’s affairs and a woman heading the human rights commission. Women are also now able to travel more freely, and they have returned to work. Although progress is being made, there is still much more turmoil. â€Å"Registered cases of physical violence against women and girls in Afghanistan have increased by about 40 percent since March 2007. Some women seek escape by self-immolation, resulting in death or disfigurement. Last year, at least 30 women committed suicide in the western Farah Province alone, most of them by setting themselves on fire, according to Afghan media reports. † (Afghanistan Online, 2008) The Afghanistan government announced a plan to give nearly one third of jobs to women by 2012. I hope that this will lead to greater things, and that the women’s rights of Afghanistan will improve and that every woman will be included throughout the country, and they can move forward. Women’s Rights Womens rights History of women's rights See also: Legal rights of women in history and Timeline of women's rights (other than voting) China The status of women In China was low, largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding Involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long.The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women. Due to the social custom that men and omen should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors of Western Medicine. This resulted in a tremendous need for female doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton (1854-1927)[3] was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA) to found the first medical college for women in China.Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women this College was located In Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Mr. Edward A. K. Hackett (1851-1916) of Indiana, USA. The College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social Greece The status of women in ancient Greece varied form city state to city state. Records exist of women in ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the tlme. [8] In ancient Athens. omen had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the oikos headed by the male kyrios. Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or other male relative. once married the husband became a woman's kyrlos. As omen were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf. [9] Athenian women had limited right to property and therefore were not considered full citizens, as citizenship and the entitlement to civil and political rights was defined in relation to property and the means to life. 10] However, women could acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, though her kyrios had the right to dispose of a woman's property[11] Athenian women could enter into a contract worth less than the value of a â€Å"medimnos of barley' (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading. 9] Slaves, like women, were not eligible for full citizenship In ancient Athens, though In rare circumstances they could become citizens if freed. The only permanent barrier to citizenship, and hence full political and civil rights, in ancient Athens was gender.No women ever acquired citizenship In ancient Athens, and therefore women were excluded In principle and practice from ancient Athenian democracy. [12] By contrast, Spartan women enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. Although Spartan women were formally excluded from military and political life they njoyed considerable status as mothers of Spartan warriors. As men engaged in military activity, women took responsibility for running estates. Following protracted and 40% of all Spartan land and By the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women.The unique thing about Patria Potestas was that it ad no age limits, according to Gaius a man could be consul, have a wife and children of his own and future prominence but as long as his father was alive was still under his potestas (power) and so could own nothing. Patria Potestas only ended with either the death of the father, or emancipation by him. Early in the Republic Manus Marriage ended the potestas for women, but during the middle and later Republic that form of marriage became rare, eventually disappearing completely.Marriage Under Law Rome had only two forms of marriage, and both had exactly the opposite view of legal effects. Manus Marriage was the earlier form of marriage and placed the woman under her husband's manus legally standing in the position of a daughter. Under this type of marriage women could own nothing, and had little if any legal protections. On the other hand a woman assumed the position of her husband's daughter in Manus Marriage making her agnatically instead of cognatically related to Manus, and was the opposite of Manus.Women married Sine Manu experienced no legal changes, so if her father was alive at time of marriage she continued to be his dependent and before the reign of Marcus Aurelius he could even force an end to he marriage. The lack of any legal change of status for the women meant that (provided their father had either died or emancipated them) they could own property, conduct most forms of business, and divorce her husband (without any reason needed). Legally speaking the only lack of independence a woman in Rome experienced in a marriage without Manus was from her fathe r.The only legal issue related to marriage was dowry. A dowry was not required by law, but was usually provided by a father or if a father was nonexistent it would be whatever the bride wished to come out of her own estate. It was administered by the husband, but in the vent of a divorce he was required to provide either the dowry or the equivalent of it back to his wife. In the case of adultery, husbands got to keep portions of the dowry. Politics Legally speaking women were banned from politics.As with freedmen and slaves of the Imperial Family women of the imperial family gained some benefits from the fall of the Republic, but because the nature of the Principate was to hide dictatorship such power had to be subtle and kept out of the public eye when possible. The ban on women and politics was they could not vote or run for office (sine suffragio) enlist n the army, or represent somebody else in court, women speaking their minds was not considered politics and so some women like Hortensia managed to make appearances in politics without violating the law.Inheritance Rights Everyone under the potestas of another had equal rights of inheritance under Roman Law, and wills that did otherwise ran risks of being challenged and invalidated as negligent. Stoic Influence Stoic philosophies had a strong effect on the development of law in ancient Rome. The Roman stoic thinkers Seneca and Musonius Rufus developed theories of Just elationships (not to be confused with equality in society, or even equality) arguing that nature gives men and women equal capacity for virtue and equal obligations to act virtuously (a vague concept).Therefore they argued that men and women have an equal need for philosophical education. [20] Stoic theories entered Roman law first through the Roman lawyer and senator Marcus Tullius Cicero and the influence of stoicism and philosophy increased while the status of women improved under the Empire. [21] Religious scriptures Bible See Women in the Bible â€Å"Adam named his wife Eve, because she would become the mother of all the living. (Genesis 3:20) â€Å"Now Deborah, a prophet, the wife of Lappidoth, was leading Israel at that time. † Oudges 4:4) God chose a woman, Deborah, to lead Israel.Qur'an The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. feminism, and Sex segregation and Islam The Qur'an, revealed to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, provide guidance to the Islamic community and modified existing customs in Arab society. From 610 and 661, known as the early reforms under Islam, the Qur'an introduced fundamental reforms to customary law and ntroduced rights for women in marriage, divorce and inheritance.By providing that the wife, not her family, would receive a dowry from the husband, which she could administer as her personal property, the Qur'an made women a legal party to the marriage contra ct. [citation needed] While in customary law inheritance was limited to male descendents, the Qur'an introduced rules on inheritance with certain fixed shares being distributed to designated heirs, first to the nearest female relatives and then the nearest male relatives. 22] According to Annemarie Schimmel â€Å"compared to he pre-lslamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work. â€Å"[23] The general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. [24] Women were generally given greater rights than women in pre-lslamic Arabia[25][26] and medieval Europe. [27] Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures until centuries later. 28] According to Professor William Montgomery Watt, when seen in uch historical context, Muhammad â€Å"can be seen as a fgure who testified on behalf of women's rights. â€Å"[29] The Middle Ages According to English Common Law, which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced.French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. [30] In the 16th entury, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. [31] Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women, until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a pat riarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. 32] This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples. [33] 18th and 19th century Europe The Debutante (1807) by Henry Fuseli; The woman, victim of male social conventions, is tied to the wall, made to sew and guarded by governesses. The picture reflects Mary Wollstonecraft's views in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published in 1792. [34] Starting in the late 18th century, and throughout the 19th century, rights, as a concept and claim, gained increasing political, social and philosophical importance in Europe.Movements emerged which demanded freedom of religion, the abolition of slavery, rights for women, rights for those who did not own property and universal to political debates in both France and Britain. At the time some of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment, who defended democratic principles of equality and challenged notions that a privileged few should rule over the vast majority of the population, believed that these principles should be applied only to their own gender and their own race.The philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau for example thought that it was the order of nature for woman to obey men. He wrote â€Å"Women do wrong to complain of the inequality of man-made laws† and claimed that â€Å"when she tries to usurp our rights, she is our First page of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen In 1791 he French playwright and political activist Olympe de Gouges published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,[37] modelled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789.The Declaration is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that: â€Å"This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have lost in society'. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen ollows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as â€Å"almost a parody†¦ f the original document†. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that â€Å"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. † The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: â€Å"Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility'.De Gouges expands the sixth article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which declared the rights of citizens to take part in the formation of law, to: Australian women's rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon: A hypothetical female member foists her baby's care on the House Speaker â€Å"All citizens including women are equally admissible to all public dignities, offices and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talents†. De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights. 8] Mary Wollstonecraft, a British writer and philosopher, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, arguing that it was the education and upbringing of women that created limited expectations.